RETIC-BOX , Publisher
and Library-Part 4 -, The 4th part of the total 15 parts- Dimana dan Bagaimana sarana Jalanan
Membahayakan Mamalia di Hutan Asia
Tenggara ?
From : RETIC-BOX ,
Publisher and Library
Present
Part 4
The 4th part of the total 15 parts
The Journal :
Dimana dan Bagaimana sarana Jalanan Membahayakan Mamalia di Hutan Asia Tenggara ?
...................................................
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Hasil dan Diskusi
Lokasi jalan mengancam habitat mamalia yang terancam
ahli mamalia lokal mengidentifikasi 16
jalan sebagai lokasi yang mengancam habitat mamalia yang terancam punah.
Jalan-jalan ini terjadi pada 10 dari 13 sub-daerah di tujuh negara SE Asia (S1 Tabel). Sebanyak 25 spesies mamalia yang
terancam punah (International
Union for the Conservation of Nature categories EN and CR) telah laporkan terjadi di sekitar jalan yang diidentifikasi oleh para
ahli kami - adalah sekitar 21% dari jumlah total (117) species mamalia terancam
punah diketahui terjadi di negara-negara yang diwakili (S1 Tabel). Mengingat
potensi ancaman mereka, 8 konstruksi jalan atau perbaikan proyek yang diusulkan
juga diidentifikasi (S2 Tabel).
..............................
Bukti jalan mengancam habitat mamalia yang terancam
Jalan telah memotong habitat tempat
mamalia langka
Hasil kami menunjukkan bahwa pemodelan
MAXENT dapat menjadi pendekatan yang berguna untuk menyelidiki apakah jalan
memotong melalui habitat mamalia yang terancam punah. Semua tiga jalan yang
diidentifikasi oleh para ahli di Semenanjung Malaysia memotong habitat yang
sangat cocok (nilai logistik ≥0.45) untuk Tapir Asia, berdasarkan mean (± SD)
nilai logistik piksel bahwa semua jalan dilewati (Gambar 1.): Federal Route 4
(0.50 ± 0.13); Federal Route 8 (0.49 ± 0,08); dan State Route T156 (0.51 ±
0.04). The MAXENT hasilkan peta
kesesuaian-habitat Tapir Asia mean (SD) skor AUC sebesar 0,76 ± 0,02 , yaitu sekitar skor AUC diterima berpotensi
berguna 0,75 . Ada pengelompokan kehadiran-satunya poin di State Route T156 karena pengambilan sampel
yang intensif, namun bias ini telah menerangkan melalui penggunaan grid bias
Figure 1/ gambar
1
Habitat-suitability map for the
endangered Asian Tapir (Tapirus indicus) generated by Maximum Entropy
(MaxEnt) modelling.
Figure 2/gambar 2
Habitat-use intensity map for the endangered Asian
Tapir (Tapirus indicus).
Habitats that are intensely used by this
species appear to be bisected by State Route T156 in the State of Terengganu,
Peninsular Malaysia.
Figure 3/gambar
3
A false-colour composite of a
Landsat 5 image over part of Snuol Wildlife Reserve, Cambodia.
Analisis
intensitas citra Landsat diklasifikasikan juga secara empiris menunjukkan
bagaimana jalan telah mengintensifkan konversi hutan (Gambar 4;. Lihat S4 Tabel
for confusion matrix ). Perhitungan dari tiga tahun yang berbeda menunjukkan
bahwa keuntungan gross/gross gain yang diamati pada hilangnya bare atau built-up area dan gross hutan primer lebih besar dalam 9 tahun antara 2001 dan 2009
ketika jalan itu ada daripada antara tahun 1990 dan 2001, ketika jalan itu
hanya untuk operasional untuk waktu yang singkat menjelang akhir periode.
Tingkat tahunan perubahan kategori lahan di Snuol Wildlife Reserve juga jauh
lebih cepat ketika jalan itu selalu hadir (Gambar. 5).
Figure 4/gambar
4
Land cover change of Snuol Wildlife
Reserve.
Figure 5/gambar
5
Time intensity analysis of land
category change in Snuol Wildlife Reserve, Cambodia.
Analisis Intensitas juga tersedia tiga
jalur tambahan bukti bahwa degradasi hutan dan hilangnya intensif mengikuti
pembangunan jalan melalui Snuol Wildlife Sanctuary. Pertama, keuntungan dalam
mosaik (yaitu, hutan sekunder / pertumbuhan kembali / scrub) dan daerah bare atau built-up lebih intens dalam interval
lambat daripada interval sebelumnya. Kedua, transisi ke mosaik tidak
menargetkan hutan primer dalam interval sebelumnya, sedangkan, sebaliknya,
hutan primer yang diubah untuk membentuk mosaik ketika jalan itu selalu hadir (S5
Tabel). Ketiga, meskipun transisi bare atau built-up area terjadi lebih dalam mosaik
di kedua interval waktu, ini terjadi pada intensitas yang lebih rendah dalam
interval awal daripada nantinya (S5
Tabel).
Plot densitas kernel juga menunjukkan bahwa jalan melalui Snuol
Wildlife Sanctuary mungkin berkontribusi ke konversi hutan karena sebagian
besar transisi dari hutan primer (Gambar. 6A) dan mosaik (Gambar. 6B)
untuk bare atau built-up area terjadi lebih dekat ke
jalan.
Figure 6/gambar
6 (6A & 6B)
Kernel density plots of transitions
of (A) primary forest and (B) secondary forest mosaics to bare or built-up
areas in relation to distance from Provincial Road 76 bisecting the Snuol
Wildlife Reserve, Cambodia.
klaim ahli dari jalan lain yang memfasilitasi
konversi hutan sebagian besar diperkuat oleh artikel peer-review dan grey
literature dan disusun informasi pada Tabel S6.
Pada State Route T156 di Semenanjung
Malaysia, survei tanda tidak langsung kami mencatat total 125 kamp perambahan
dan 131 jerat di hutan di kedua sisi jalan. Hampir semua tanda adalah perburuan
ilegal dan berasal dari luar . Kernel density plot mengungkapkan bahwa deteksi
dari kamp (Gambar. 7A) dan jerat (Gambar. 7B) yang lebih dekat untuk jalan
daripada yang lebih lanjut dari itu.
Secara total, kami mencatat setidaknya 43 akses jalan yang mengarah dari jalan
ke dalam hutan.
Figure 7/gambar
7 (7A & 7B)
Kernel density plots of detections
of (A) encroachment camps and (B) snares in relation to distance from State
Route T156 cutting through forests in the State of Terengganu, Peninsular
Malaysia.
Di Myanmar, informasi dari program WCS
Myanmar menunjukkan bahwa jaringan jalan memfasilitasi perdagangan ilegal mamalia
di tingkat nasional. Secara khusus, rute dari sumber untuk pusat perdagangan ,
dan pusat perdagangan -perbatasan, diidentifikasi (Gambar. 8). Di perbatasan
Thailand-Myanmar, ada bagian dari setidaknya 187 beruang dan 1158 felids
dicatat antara tahun 1999 dan 2006 di pasar perbatasan seperti Tiga Pagoda Pass
dan Tachilek (Gambar 8). Peningkatan hubungan jalan melintasi perbatasan dan
jalan raya yang di up grade , seperti yang menghubungkan Mandalay, Lashio dan kota
Muse kota (Gbr. 8), tampaknya memiliki peningkatan akses bagi para pedagang ke
pasar perbatasan yang menguntungkan di Cina .
Figure 8/gambar
8
Map of road networks in Myanmar
functioning as conduits for the illegal wildlife trade to border
klaim ahli dari jalan lain memfasilitasi
perburuan dan perdagangan ilegal sebagian besar diperkuat oleh artikel
peer-review dan grey literature dan
disusun informasi di S7 Tabel.
The 4th
part of the total 15 parts
................................................................
Part 1 :
Part 2 :
http://reticboxlibrary.blogspot.com/2016/09/retic-box-publisher-and-library-part-2.html
Part 3 :
........................................
S1 Table
Summary of 16 existing roads contributing
to forest conversion of mammal habitats and hunting of endangered mammals
according to 36 experts from seven countries in Southeast Asia (number of
experts who responded/number of experts contacted).
Table S1. Summary of 16 existing roads
contributing to forest conversion of mammal habitats and hunting of endangered
mammals according to 36 experts from each country (number of experts who
responded/number of experts contacted) in Southeast Asia.
Country
|
Existing road
(network)
|
Threatened
endangered mammal habitats
|
Endangered mammals
recorded (historically and currently) in habitats
|
Cambodia (4/4)
|
National Highway 4
|
Kirirom and Bokor NP
|
Asian Elephant,
Banteng, Eld's Deer, Tiger, Pileated Gibbon [1], [2]
|
Provincial Road
Network 76-141
|
Eastern Plains
Landscape*
|
Asian Elephant, Banteng, Black-shanked Douc Langur, Eld's Deer, Tiger,
Yellow-cheeked Crested Gibbon [3]
|
|
National Road 48
|
Cardamom Mountains^
|
Asian Elephant,
Dhole, Pileated Gibbon, Tiger [4]
|
|
Indonesia
|
|||
Kalimantan (5/5)
|
Bontang-Sangata Road
|
Kutai NP
|
Banteng, Bornean
Orangutan, Bornean Gibbon [5], [6], [7]
|
Balikpapan-Samarinda
Road
|
Bukit Soeharto RF
|
Bornean Gibbon,
Sunda Otter Civet [8],
[9]
|
|
Logging road
networks
|
Priority sites for
Orangutan conservation#
|
Banteng, Bornean
Orangutan [10], [5]
|
|
Sumatra (7/8)
|
Sanggi-Bengkunat/Krui
Liwa Roads
|
Bukit Barisan
Selatan NP
|
Agile Gibbon, Asian
Elephant, Asian Tapir, Siamang, Sumatran Rhino, Tiger [11]
|
Blangkejeren-Kutacane
Road
|
Gunung Leuser NP
|
Asian Elephant, Sumatran Orangutan, Sumatran
Rhino, Tiger [12]
|
|
Logging road
networks
|
Tiger conservation
landscapes†
|
Asian Elephant,
Sumatran Orangutan, Tiger [13], [14]
|
|
Lao PDR (3/3)
|
Route 9
|
Phou Xang He and
Dong Phou Vieng NBCAs
|
Asian Elephant, Douc
Langur, Giant Muntjac, Tiger Cleetus [15]
|
Route Network
12-1E-8
|
Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA
|
Asian Elephant, Dhole, Douc Langur, Giant Muntjac, Yellow-cheeked
Crested Gibbon, Saola, Tiger [16], [17]
|
|
Route Network 17A-3
|
Nam Ha NBCA
|
Asian Elephant,
Black-crested Gibbon, Dhole, Tiger [18], [19]
|
|
Malaysia
|
|||
East (5/7)
|
Kalabakan-Sapulut
Road
|
FRs in Tawau and Pensiangan Districts
|
Asian Elephant,
Sumatran Rhino [20],
[21]
|
Logging road
networks
|
FRs, Kelabit
highlands
|
Banteng, Bornean
Gibbon, Sumatran Rhino [22]
|
|
Access roads for
dams
|
Murum, Danum and
Pileran Valleys
|
Bornean Gibbon [23]
|
|
Peninsular (7/9)
|
Federal Route 4
|
Royal Belum State
Park, Temengor FR
|
Asian Elephant,
Asian Tapir, Siamang, Sunda Pangolin, Tiger, White-handed Gibbon [24]
|
Federal Route 8
|
Taman Negara NP,
Titiwangsa Main Range
|
Asian Elephant,
Asian Tapir, Dhole, Siamang, Sunda Pangolin, Tiger, White-handed Gibbon [25]
|
|
State Route T156
|
Tembat, Petuang and
Hulu Telemong FRs
|
Asian Elephant,
Asian Tapir, Dhole, Sunda Pangolin,
Tiger, White-handed Gibbon [26]
|
|
Myanmar (1/3)
|
Wildlife trade route
network
|
All mammal habitats
in Myanmar
|
See Results
|
Roads in E, W and NW
sector
|
Alaungdaw Kathapa NP
|
Asian Elephant, Banteng, Dhole, Tiger [27], [28]
|
|
Ledo road
|
Hukaung Valley WS
|
Tiger [29]
|
|
Vietnam (3/3)
|
Ho Chi Minh Highway
|
Protected areas§
|
Asian Elephant,
Delacour's Langur, Northern White-cheeked Gibbon, Red-shanked Douc, Saola,[30], [31]
|
Roads in banteng
habitats
|
Ea So, Yok Don and
Krong Trai NR, Vinh Cuu NP
|
Banteng [32]
|
|
Roads in
|
Cat Tien NP
|
Asian Elephant,
Javan Rhino (hunted to extinction during time of writing) [33], [34]
|
|
* Mondulkiri PF, Seima BCA, Lumphat, Snuol, Phnum Prech and
Phnum Namlier WS
^ Phnum Samkos and Phnum Aural WS, Central Cardamom PF
# Gunung Palung, Danau Sentarum/Bentung Kerihun, Tanjung
Puting, Belantikan, Gunung Gajah/Berau/Kelai, Sebangau
† Kerinci Seblat NP, Tesso Nilo and Bukit Tigapuluh
landscapes, Bukit Rambang Baling, Kuala Kampar-Kerumutan, Rimbo Panti-Batang
Gadu, proHUsed Senepis-Buluhala Tiger National Park
§ Cuc Phuong and Phong Nha-Ke Bang NP, Vu Quang NR
NOTE: BCA = Biodiversity Conservation Area; FR = Forest
Reserve; PA = Protected Area; PF = Protection Forest; NBCA = National
Biodiversity Conservation Area; NP = National Park; NS = Nature Reserve; RF =
Recreation Forest; WS = Wildlife Sanctuary
References
1.
Protected Areas
Development (2004) Field study: Cambodia, Bokor, Kirirom, Kep and Ream National
Park, Protected Areas and Development in the Lower Mekong River Region.
Available:
http://www.mekong-protected-areas.org/cambodia/docs/cambodia_field.pdf.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
2.
Http 1: Kirirom
National Park. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirirom_National_Park.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
3.
Walston J, Davidson P,
Men Soriyun NY (2001) A wildlife survey of Southern Mondulkiri Province,
Cambodia. Phnom Penh: Wildlife Conservation Society (Cambodia Programme). 80 p.
4.
Daltry JC, Momberg, F (2000)
Biological survey of the Cardamom mountains, southwestern Cambodia. Cambridge:
Fauna and Flora International, Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Environment
and Wildlife Protection Office. 20 p.
5.
Wich SA, Meijaard E, Marshall AJ, Husson S, Ancrenaz
M, et al. (2008) Distribution and conservation of the orang-utan (Pongo spp.) on Borneo and Sumatra: how
many remain? Oryx 42: 329-339.
6.
Setiawan A, Nugroho TS,
Djuwantoko, Pudyatmoko S (2009) A survey of Miller’s Grizzled Surili, Presbytis hosei canicurus, in East
Kalimantan, Indonesia. Primate Conserv 24: 139-143.
7.
MONGABAY.COM (2009)
Orangutan Population in Borneo Park Plunges 90% in 5 years. MONGABAY.COM.
Available: http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0517-Orangutans_kutai.html. Accessed
03 Aug 2014.
8.
Yasuma S (1994) An
invitation to the mammals of East Kalimantan. Jakarta: Pusrehut Special
Publication no. 3, Tropical Rainforest Project, Japan International Cooperation
Agency, Directorate General of Higher Education and Ministry of Education and
Culture. 384 p.
9.
Oka T, Uskander E,
Ghozali DI (2000) Effects of forest fragmentation on the behaviour of Bornean
gibbons. In: Guhardja E, Fatawi M, Sutisna M, Mori T, Ohta S, editors.
Rainforest ecosystems of East Kalimantan: El Nino, drought, fire and human
impacts. Tokyo: Ecological studies 140, Springer-Verlag. pp. 229-238.
10.
Orangutan Conservation
Services Program (2007) OCSP threat analysis and site selection for Kalimantan
and Sumatra. Available: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadl978.pdf. Accessed 03
Aug 2014.
11.
O'Brien T, Kinnaird MF
(1996) Birds and mammals of the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra,
Indonesia Oryx: 30: 207-217.
12.
Singleton I, Wich S,
Husson S, Stephens S, Atmoko SU et al., editors (2004) Orangutan population and
habitat viability assessment: final report. Apple Valley: IUCN/SSC Conservation
Breeding Specialist Group. 235 p.
13.
Dinerstein E, Loucks C,
Heydlauff A, Wikramanayake E, Bryja, G et al. (2006) Setting priorities for the conservation and recovery of wild tigers:
2005-2015: A user's guide. Washington DC: World Wildlife Fund, Wildlife
Conservation Society, Smithsonian, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation-Save
the Tiger Fund. 50 p.
14.
Eyes on the Forest
(2008) Asia Pulp and Paper threatens Senepis forest, Sumatran tiger habitat,
and global climate. Riau: Eyes on the Forest 15 p..
15.
Cleetus R (2005) Lao
PDR: Using strategic environmental vulnerabilities assessment (SEVA) for
evaluating threats to forests. Washington DC: WWF-Macroeconomics Program
Office. 7 p.
16.
Timmins RJ, Evans TD
(1996) A wildlife and habitat survey of the Nakai-Nam Theun National
Biodiversity Conservation Area, Khammouane and Bolikhamsai Provinces, Laos.
Vientiane: Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, The
Wildlife Conservation Society. 59 p.
17.
Timmins RJ, Duckworth
JW (2004) Status and conservation of Douc Langurs (Pygathrix nemaeus) in Laos. Int J Primatol 20: 469-489.
18.
Tizard R, Davidson P,
Kamkhoun, Salivong K (1997) A wildlife and habitat survey of Nam Ha and Nam
Kong Protected Areas, Luang Namtha Province, Lao PDR. Vientiane: Department of
Resource Conservation, Wildlife Conservation Society Cooperative Program,
Department of Forestry.
19.
Johnson A, Singh S,
Duangdala M, Hedemark M (2005) The western black crested gibbon Nomascus
concolor in Laos, new records and
conservation status. Oryx 39: 311-317.
20.
Unet R (2009) Concern
over Sapulut-Kalabakan Highway. Available:
http://sabahmajujaya.blogspot.com/2009/03/concern-over-sapulut-kalabakan-highway.html.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
21.
Ambu LN, Andua PM,
Nathan S, Tuuga A, Jensen SM et al. Asian Elephant Action Plan Sabah
(Malaysia). Kota Kinabalu: Sabah Wildlife Department.
22.
Abdullah MT, Lakim M, Abdul Rahman MA (1999)
Notes on large mammals of Bario, Sarawak. In: Ismail G, Laily DD, editors. A
scientific journey through Borneo, Bario, the Kelabit highlands of Sarawak.
Kuching: Pelanduk Publications. pp. 221-222.
23.
Then
S (02 Nov 2009) Murum Dam: More than 100 Wildlife Species at Risk. The Star. Available:
http://www.thestar.com.my/story.aspx?file=%2f2009%2f11%2f2%2fnation%2f20091102152540&sec=nation.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
24.
Rayan DM, Lau CF, Goh
SS, Mohamad S, Wong CTC, Siwan ES, Hamirul M, Mohamed A (2012) Management
recommendations on ecological linkages: findings from a study on large mammal
habitat use within the Belum-Temengor corridor. Petaling Jaya: WWF-Malaysia. 35
p.
25. Kawanishi
K, Sunquist ME (2004) Conservation status of tigers in a primary rainforest of
Peninsular Malaysia. Biol Conserv 120: 329-344.
26.
Clements GR (2013) The
environmental and social impacts of roads in Southeast Asia. Ph.D. Thesis,
James Cook University. Available: http://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/31888/,
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
27.
Wildlife Conservation
Society (2002) Development of an Action Plan; Myanmar Tiger Conservation - II.
Yangon. Available: http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs2/MyanmarReport1.pdf.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
28.
Lynam AJ, Rabinowitz A,
Myint T, Maung M, Latt KT et al. (2009) Estimating abundance with sparse data:
tigers in northern Myanmar. Popul Ecol 51: 115-121.
29.
Rabinowitz A (2004) A
question of balance. Natl Geogr 205: 98-117.
30.
Eve R, Madhavan S,
Dzung VV (2000) Spatial planning for nature conservation in Vu Quang Nature
Reserve: a landscape ecology approach. Hanoi: World Wide Fund for
Nature-Indochina Program. 158 p.
31.
Reuters (29 Oct 2001)
Vietnam’s New Highway may Cut through Reserve. Reuters Newswire. Available:
http://www.iol.co.za/scitech/technology/vietnam-s-new-highway-may-cut-through-reserve-1.76017#.U95qOvmSw2I.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
32.
Pedrono M, Tuan HA,
Chouteau P, Vallejo F (2009) Status and distribution of the endangered banteng
(Bos javinicus birmanicus) in
Vietnam: a conservation tragedy. Oryx 43: 618-625.
33.
Polet G, Ling S (2004)
Protecting mammal diversity: opportunities and constraints for pragmatic
conservation management in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam. Oryx 38: 186-196.
34.
Brook SM, van Coeverden
de Groot P, Scott C, Boag P, Long B et al. (2012) Integrated and novel
survey methods for rhinoceros populations confirm the extinction of Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus from
Vietnam. Biol Conserv 155: 59-67.
S2 Table
Summary of 8
planned road construction or improvement projects that can potentially
contribute to forest conversion of mammal habitats and hunting of endangered
mammals according to experts from five Southeast Asian countries.
Table S2. Summary of 8 planned road construction or improvement projects
that can potentially contribute to forest conversion of mammal habitats and
hunting of endangered mammals according to experts from five Southeast Asian
countries.
Country
|
Planned road
construction or upgrading project
|
Threatened
endangered mammal habitats
|
Endangered mammals
in habitats
|
Cambodia
|
Expansion of
National Road 48
|
Phnum Samkos and Phnum Aural Wildlife Sanctuaries, Central
Cardamom Protection Forest
|
Asian Elephant,
Dhole, Pileated Gibbon, Tiger [1]
|
Expansion of logging
road to link National Road 48 and Samkos
|
Phnum Samkos and Phnum Aural Wildlife Sanctuaries, Central
Cardamom Protection Forest
|
Asian Elephant,
Dhole, Pileated Gibbon, Tiger [2]
|
|
Indonesia
|
|||
Kalimantan
|
Kalimantan Border
Oil Palm Mega-Project
|
Bentung Kerihun
National Park
|
Bornean Orangutan
[3]
|
Balang Island Bridge
Project
|
Sungai Wain
Protection Forest
|
Bornean Gibbon,
Bornean Orangutan, Bay Cat [4]
|
|
Sumatra
|
Ladia Galaska Scheme
|
Gunung Leuser
National Park
|
Sumatran Orangutan
[5]
|
Lao PDR
|
Upgrading of Route
18
|
Xe Pian National
Biodiversity Conservation Area
|
NA
|
Malaysia
|
|||
Peninsular
|
Kuala Lumpur Outer
Ring Road
|
Selangor State Park
|
Asian Tapir [6]
|
Myanmar
|
Upgrading of Dawei-Myeik-Kyawthaung Highway
|
Contributes to
Thailand-Myanmar-China smuggling route
|
Mammals targeted by
wildlife trade
|
Vietnam
|
Road in northern
section of Mondulkiri Protection Forest
|
Mondulkiri
Protection Forest
|
[7]
|
References
1.
Asian Development Bank
(2005) Greater Mekong subregion biodiversity conservation initiative: Strategic
framework and technical Assessment 2005-2014. Bangkok: Asian Development Bank.
221 p.
2.
Sovan N (11 Aug 2008)
Dams Threaten Siamese Crocs. The Phnom Penh Post. Available:
http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/dams-threaten-siamese-crocs. Accessed 03
Aug 2014.
3.
Wakker E (2006) The
Kalimantan border oil palm mega-project. Amsterdam: Milieudefensie – Friends of
the Earth Netherlands and Swedish Society for Nature Conservation. 50 p.
4.
Hance J (2010) Bridge
development in Kalimantan threatens rainforest, mangroves, and coral reef.
MONGABAY.COM. Available: http://news.mongabay.com/2010/0103-hance_pulau.html.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
5.
Gaveau DLA,
Wich S, Epting J, Juhn D, Kanninen M, et al. (2009)
The future of forests and Orangutans (Pongo
abelii) in Sumatra: predicting impacts of oil palm plantations, road
construction, and mechanisms for reducing carbon emissions from deforestation.
Environ Res Lett 4: 034013.
6.
Http 1 (2013) Protect Klang Gates Quartz Ridge and Selangor State Park
from the Proposed KL Outer Ring Road. Available:
http://www.petitiononline.com/KLORR/petition.html. Accessed 03
Aug 2014.
7.
International
Organization for Migration (2009) Mapping vulnerability to natural hazards in
Mondulkiri. Phnom Penh: International Organization for Migration Mission. 109
p.
S3 Table
Logistic
regression models examining the effect of four site covariates on the
endangered Asian Tapir (Tapirus
indicus) habitat use (ψ), and
three sampling covariates affecting its detection probability (p), based
on camera-trap data from forests along State Road 156, a road identified by one
of the experts in Peninsular Malaysia.
............................................................
Table S3. Logistic
regression models examining the effect of four site covariates on the endangered Asian Tapir (Tapirus indicus) habitat use (ψ), and
three sampling covariates
affecting its detection probability (p), based on camera-trap
data from forests along State
Road 156, a road identified by one of the experts in Peninsular Malaysia.
Candidate
models
|
AICc
|
∆AICc
|
wAICc
|
k
|
DE
|
%DE
|
 |
ER
|
ψ(resv),p(trap+rain)
|
822.17
|
0.00
|
0.25
|
5
|
811.78
|
0.45
|
0.89
|
1.36
|
ψ(resv+plan),p(trap+rain)
|
822.79
|
0.62
|
0.18
|
6
|
810.23
|
0.64
|
0.93
|
|
ψ(.),p(trap+rain)
|
823.73
|
1.56
|
0.11
|
4
|
815.47
|
0.00
|
0.92
|
|
ψ(resv+road),p(trap+rain)
|
823.81
|
1.64
|
0.11
|
6
|
811.25
|
0.52
|
0.86
|
Note: Only candidate
models with ∆AICc < 2 are shown. The top-ranked model was used to generate
habitat-use-intensity maps. Site covariates included in each model are: 1) road
= distance to edge of State Route T156; 2) plan = distance to nearest plantation edge; and 3) resv =
distance to reservoir edge. AICc
= Akaike’s Information Criterion corrected for small sample size; ∆AICc
= difference in AICc for each model from the most parsimonious
model; wAICc = AICc weight, k = number of parameters; DE
= deviance; % DE = % deviance explained in the response variable by the model
under consideration; = overdispersion factor. Sampling covariates included in each model are: 1) trap = no.
of trap nights that cameras were operational during each sampling occasion; and
2) rain = daily rainfall.
= overdispersion factor. Sampling covariates included in each model are: 1) trap = no.
of trap nights that cameras were operational during each sampling occasion; and
2) rain = daily rainfall.
S4 Table
Confusion matrix
used in accuracy analysis of 2010 classified image from Snuol Wildlife Reserve,
Cambodia.
S4 Table
Confusion
matrix used in accuracy analysis of 2010 classified image from Snuol Wildlife
Reserve, Cambodia.
Table S4. Confusion
matrix used in accuracy analysis of 2010 classified image from Snuol Wildlife
Reserve, Cambodia.
Table S4. Confusion
matrix used in accuracy analysis of 2010 classified image from Snuol Wildlife
Reserve, Cambodia.
Ground Points
|
||||||||
Bare or built-up
|
Mosaic
|
Mature Forest
|
Others
|
Water
|
Subtotal (Classified Pixel)
|
User's Accuracy (%)
|
||
Classified Pixel
|
Bare or
built-up
|
118
|
18
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
139
|
84.9
|
Mosaic
|
5
|
137
|
20
|
2
|
0
|
164
|
83.5
|
|
Mature
Forest
|
0
|
15
|
155
|
0
|
0
|
170
|
91.2
|
|
Others
|
6
|
5
|
0
|
9
|
1
|
21
|
42.9
|
|
Water
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
5
|
6
|
83.3
|
|
Subtotal
(Ground Points)
|
129
|
175
|
175
|
15
|
6
|
500
|
||
Producer's
Accuracy (%)
|
91.5
|
78.3
|
88.6
|
60.0
|
83.3
|
|||
Overall
Accuracy (%)
|
84.8
|
|||||||
Note: Classification accuracy for
the image was estimated on a per pixel basis using reference datasets of 500
randomly generated points. The reference datasets consisted of the original
Landsat 5 image and a Landsat 7 image obtained from a similar temporal period.
These reference datasets were used because there was limited overlap in
historical imagery available in Google Earth. As we could not obtain high
spatial resolution images for ~1990 and ~2000, we could only assess the
accuracy of the 2010 image. However, we expect the accuracy of classified
images for 1990 and 2000 to be comparable to that of the 2010 image because it
was produced with the same data and methods. Overall accuracy was relatively
high at 85% and the producer’s accuracy was also generally high for all
land-cover classes, ranging from 60-91%.
Table S5. Summary
statistics for transition of land categories to mosaic of secondary forests
from 1990-2001 and 2001-2009, and transition of categories to bare or built-up
areas in 1990-2001and 2001-2009 in Snuol Wildlife Reserve, Cambodia. Each row
respectively gives: a) land category name, b) area of transition in terms of
cell counts, c) intensity of transition per gross gain, d) uniform distribution
of transitions across the area possible for that change, given the empirical
gross gain for mosaic or bare or built-up areas, e) hypothesized uniform annual
transition, f) annual number of pixels of hypothesized error, g) commission or omission intensity in t map and h) hypothesized error as
percent of t map.
1990 to 2001
|
||||||||
transitions TO Mosaic
|
||||||||
FROM
|
Observed
|
Intensity of
|
Uniform
|
Hypothesized
|
Annual # of pixels
|
Commission
|
Ommission
|
Error as %
|
Category
|
transition
|
transition
|
distribution
|
annual transition
|
of hypothesized error
|
intensity
|
intensity
|
of map1990
|
Primary forest
|
835
|
2.06
|
2.40
|
1020
|
185
|
0.00
|
14.80
|
3.31
|
Bare or Built-up
|
150
|
5.90
|
2.40
|
29
|
121
|
11.38
|
0.00
|
3.31
|
Other
|
78
|
5.91
|
2.40
|
15
|
63
|
5.91
|
0.00
|
3.31
|
Water
|
2
|
3.54
|
2.40
|
1
|
1
|
0.09
|
0.00
|
3.31
|
2001 to 2009
|
||||||||
transitions TO Mosaic
|
||||||||
FROM
|
Observed
|
Intensity of
|
Uniform
|
Hypothesized
|
Annual # of pixels
|
Commission
|
Ommission
|
Error as %
|
Category
|
transition
|
transition
|
distribution
|
annual transition
|
of hypothesized error
|
intensity
|
intensity
|
of map1990
|
Primary forest
|
1268
|
3.31
|
3.20
|
1214
|
54
|
4.21
|
0.00
|
0.71
|
Bare or Built-up
|
17
|
1.06
|
3.20
|
61
|
45
|
0.00
|
3.34
|
0.71
|
Other
|
8
|
1.71
|
3.20
|
18
|
9
|
0.00
|
0.73
|
0.71
|
Water
|
0
|
0.00
|
3.20
|
0
|
0
|
0.00
|
0.01
|
0.71
|
S6 Table
Supporting
evidence from peer-reviewed articles and grey literature corroborating expert
claims that roads contribute to forest conversion of habitats where endangered
mammals occur in Southeast Asia.
Table S6. Supporting
evidence from peer-reviewed articles and grey literature corroborating expert
claims that roads contribute to forest conversion of habitats where endangered
mammals occur in Southeast Asia.
Country
|
Name of road/road
network
|
Threatened
endangered mammal habitats
|
Supporting evidence
for threats from peer-reviewed articles and grey literature
|
Cambodia
|
National Highway 4
|
Kirirom and Bokor NP
|
Roadside forests vulnerable to illegal logging for
firewood, charcoal and timber [1]
|
Provincial Road
Network 76-141
|
Eastern Plains
Landscape*
|
Illegal timber stockpiles found along road bisecting Snuol
[2]
|
|
Villagers paid to drag logs harvested from
Snuol to the road side [3]
|
|||
National Road 48
|
Cardamom Mountains^
|
Road has intensified illegal logging in neighbouring
protected areas [4]
|
|
Indonesia
|
|||
Kalimantan
|
Bontang-Sangata Road
|
Kutai NP
|
Road has spawned arterial roads that were utilized by both
industrial timber companies and illegal loggers [5]
|
Road has intensified forest conversion to plantations [6]
[7]
|
|||
Forests along road now dominated by coal mines and oil palm
plantations [8]
|
|||
Balikpapan-Samarinda
Road
|
Bukit Soeharto RF
|
Park has degraded due to road and expected to lose 100% of
original forest cover by 2013 [9]
|
|
Logging road
networks
|
Priority sites for
Orangutan conservation#
|
Park buffer zones near logging roads suffered higher
deforestation rates than those next to paved roads [10]
|
|
Sumatra
|
Logging road
networks
|
Tiger conservation
landscapes†
|
49,020 km of logging roads has led to extensive forest loss
and degradation [11]
|
Forests along logging roads prone to clearing and forest
conversion by villagers for farmlands [12]
|
|||
Lao PDR
|
Route Network 17A-3
|
Nam Ha NBCA
|
Road has accelerated
forest conversion for teak, rubber and sticky rice cultivation [13]
|
Malaysia
|
|||
East
|
Kalabakan-Sapulut
Road
|
FRs in Tawau and Pensiangan Districts
|
Road has contributed to overland illegal timber traffic out
of East Kalimantan [14]
|
Logging road
networks
|
FRs, Kelabit
highlands
|
300-km logging road by Samling Corporation has threatened
to accelerate deforestation [15]
|
|
Access roads for
dams
|
Murum, Danum and
Pileran Valleys
|
Access road to Murum dam site has resulted in timber
extraction from roadside forests [16]
|
|
Vietnam
|
Ho Chi Minh Highway
|
Protected areas§
|
Highway has led to
loss of habitat in protected areas beside it [17]
|
Roads in banteng
habitats
|
Ea So, Yok Don and
Krong Trai NR, Vinh Cuu NP
|
Roads has encouraged
human settlement and elevated incidences of logging [18] [19]
|
|
* Mondulkiri PF, Seima BCA, Lumphat, Snuol, Phnum Prech and
Phnum Namlier WS
^ Phnum Samkos and Phnum Aural WS, Central Cardamom PF
# Gunung Palung, Danau Sentarum/Bentung Kerihun, Tanjung
Puting, Belantikan, Gunung Gajah/Berau/Kelai, Sebangau
† Kerinci Seblat NP, Tesso Nilo and Bukit Tigapuluh
landscapes, Bukit Rambang Baling, Kuala Kampar-Kerumutan, Rimbo Panti-Batang
Gadu, proHUsed Senepis-Buluhala Tiger National Park
§ Cuc Phuong and Phong Nha-Ke Bang NP, Vu Quang NR
NOTE: BCA = Biodiversity Conservation Area; FR = Forest
Reserve; PA = Protected Area; PF = Protection Forest; NBCA = National
Biodiversity Conservation Area; NP = National Park; NS = Nature Reserve; RF =
Recreation Forest; WS = Wildlife Sanctuary
References
1.
Food and Agriculture
Organization (1998) Woodfuel Flow Study of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Wood Energy Development
Programme in Asia. Available: http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5667e/x5667e07.htm.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
2.
Société Générale de
Surveillance (2005) Independent monitor: forest crime monitoring and reporting.
Geneva: Société Générale de Surveillance.
3.
Global Witness (1999)
The Untouchables: Forest Crimes and the Concessionaires – can Cambodia Afford
to keep them? London: Global Witness. 18 p.
4.
Asian Development Bank
(2005) Greater Mekong subregion biodiversity conservation initiative: Strategic
framework and technical Assessment 2005-2014. Bangkok: Asian Development Bank.
221 p.
5.
Jepson P, Momberg F,
van Noord H (2002) A review of the efficacy of the protected area system of
East Kalimantan province, Indonesia. Nature Area J 22: 28-42.
6.
Vayda AP, Sahur A
(1996) Bugis settlers in East Kalimantan’s Kutai National Park, their past and
present and some possibilities for their future. Jakarta: Center for
International Forestry Research Special Publication. 54 p.
7.
World Bank (1998) Fire
hazards, transboundary hazards, and sustainable forestry in East Asia and the
Pacific. World Bank. Available:
http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/course/coursere/id_coure_2.htm. Accessed 03 Aug
2014.
8.
Setiawan A, Nugroho TS,
Djuwantoko, Pudyatmoko S (2009) A survey of Miller’s Grizzled Surili, Presbytis hosei canicurus, in East
Kalimantan, Indonesia. Primate Conserv 24: 139-143.
9.
Harris NL, Petrova S,
Stolle F, Brown S (2008) Indentifying optimal areas for REDD intervention: East
Kalimantan, Indonesia as a case study. Environ Res Lett 3: 035006.
10.
Curran L, Trigg N, McDonald
AK, Astiani D, Hardiono YM et al. (2004) Lowland forest loss in protected areas
in Indonesian Borneo. Science 303: 1000-1003.
11.
Gaveau DLA, Epting J,
Lyne O, Linkie M, Kumara I et al. (2009)
Evaluating whether protected areas reduce tropical deforestation in Sumatra. J
Biogeogr 36: 2165-2175.
12.
Linkie M, Smith RJ,
Leader-Williams N (2004) Mapping and predicting deforestation patterns in the
lowlands of Sumatra. Biodivers Conserv 13: 1809-1818.
13.
Butler R (2009) Illegal
Hunting in Laos Takes a Toll on Wildlife. MONGABAY.COM. Available:
http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0420-wildlife_trade_in_laos.html. Accessed 03 Aug
2014.
14.
Obidzinski K, Andrianto
A, Wijaya C (2007) Cross-border timber trade in Indonesia: critical or
overstated problem? Forest governance lessons from Kalimantan. Int For Rev 9:
526-535.
15.
Then S (2008) Concern
over Logging Road into Bario Highland. The Star. Available:
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Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
16.
Then S (2009) Murum Dam:
More than 100 Wildlife Species at Risk. The Star. Available:
http://www.thestar.com.my/story.aspx?file=%2f2009%2f11%2f2%2fnation%2f20091102152540&sec=nation.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
17.
Gray DD (2006) Ho Chi
Minh Trail Vietnam, from Soldier’s Road to Tourist Highway. Associated Press.
Available:
http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2005-07-18-ho-chi-minh_x.htm.
Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
18.
Nguyen MH (2009) The
status of vulnerable gaur (Bos gaurus)
and endangered banteng (Bos javanicus)
in Ea So Nature Reserve and Yok Don and Cat Tien National Parks, Vietnam. Oryx
43: 129-135.
19.
Pedrono M, Tuan HA,
Chouteau P, Vallejo F (2009) Status and distribution of the endangered banteng
(Bos javinicus birmanicus) in
Vietnam: a conservation tragedy. Oryx 43: 618-625.
S7 Table
Supporting evidence
from peer-reviewed articles and grey literature corroborating expert claims
that roads contribute to illegal hunting and trade of wildlife in Southeast
Asia.
Table S7. Supporting evidence from
peer-reviewed articles and grey literature corroborating expert claims that
roads contribute to illegal hunting and trade of wildlife in Southeast Asia.
Country
|
Name of road/road
network
|
Threatened
endangered mammal habitats
|
Supporting evidence for threats from peer-reviewed articles and grey
literature
|
Cambodia
|
National Highway 4
|
Kirirom and Bokor NP
|
Road has provided access into Kirirom to illegally hunt
mammals [1], [2]
|
Game is illegally sold along the road [3]
|
|||
Provincial Road
Network 76-141
|
Eastern Plains
Landscape*
|
Increased encounter rate of hunting signs along extension of road through the Seima
[4]
|
|
Indonesia
|
|||
Sumatra
|
Sanggi-Bengkunat/Krui
Liwa Roads
|
Bukit Barisan
Selatan NP
|
Roads have provided
access to poachers, who are removing Sumatran tigers from the park each year
[5]
|
Blangkejeren-Kutacane
Road
|
Gunung Leuser NP
|
Roads have contributed to hunting in park (Singleton
et al. 2004), and declines of Sumatran Orangutans [6]
|
|
Logging road
networks
|
Tiger conservation
landscapes†
|
Logging road
networks have contributed poacher access into Sumatran Tiger habitats [7]
|
|
Logging highways
have increased levels of human and Sumatran Tiger conflicts [8]
|
|||
Lao PDR
|
Route 9
|
Phou Xang He and
Dong Phou Vieng NBCAs
|
Road upgrade has
increased the risk of cross-border trafficking of mammals [9]
|
Route Network
12-1E-8
|
Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA
|
Road has threatened
Saola and Douc Langurs, particularly through poaching for illegal trade [10].
|
|
Malaysia
|
|||
East
|
Kalabakan-Sapulut
Road
|
FRs in Tawau and Pensiangan Districts
|
One Sumatran rhinoceros individual poached along road after
it became habituated to presence of people [11]
|
Logging road
networks
|
FRs, Kelabit
highlands
|
Logging roads from Pan Borneo Highway allowed poachers to
access Bornean Pygmy Elephant habitats [12]
|
|
Main Line West logging road has increased poaching threat
to Bornean Pygmy Elephants [13]
|
|||
Peninsular
|
Federal Route 4
|
Royal Belum State
Park, Temengor FR
|
Roadside patrols removed snares, rescued a snared tiger and
arrested poachers [14], [15]
|
More snares per unit survey effort were detected closer to
road than forest interior [16]
|
|||
Federal Route 8
|
Tamana Negara NP,
Titiwangsa Main Range
|
Road re-alignment to within 2 km of national park has provided
greater access for poachers [17]
|
|
State Route T156
|
Tembat, Petuang and
Hulu Telemong FRs
|
See Results
|
|
Myanmar
|
Wildlife trade route
network
|
All mammal habitats
in Myanmar
|
See Results
|
Ledo road
|
Hukaung Valley WS
|
Road has provided
unrestricted access to poachers, who actively supply wild meat to local
markets [18]
|
|
Vietnam
|
Ho Chi Minh Highway
|
Protected areas§
|
Highway has led to
hunting in adjacent protected areas [19], especially to Saola populations
[20]
|
Arterial roads
branching from highway function as conduits for illegal wildlife trade [21],
[22]
|
|||
Roads in banteng
habitats
|
Ea So, Yok Don and
Krong Trai NR, Vinh Cuu NP
|
Roads have increased
extirpation risk of Banteng due to increased accessibility for hunters [23]
|
|
Roads in
|
Cat Tien NP
|
Roads have provided
access to poachers targeting mammals such as the Javan rhino [24]
|
|
* Mondulkiri PF, Seima PF, Lumphat, Snuol, Phnum Prech and Phnum
Namlier WS
† Kerinci Seblat NP, Tesso Nilo and Bukit Tigapuluh
landscapes, Bukit Rambang Baling, Kuala Kampar-Kerumutan, Rimbo Panti-Batang
Gadu, proHUsed Senepis-Buluhala Tiger National Park
§ Cuc Phuong and Phong Nha-Ke Bang NP, Vu Quang NR
NOTE: BCA = Biodiversity Conservation Area; FR = Forest
Reserve; PA = Protected Area; PF = Protection Forest; NBCA = National
Biodiversity Conservation Area; NP = National Park; NS = Nature Reserve; RF =
Recreation Forest; WS = Wildlife Sanctuary
References
1.
Khim L, Taylor-Hunt D,
Monirak M, Sarenn K, Savuth U (1995) Kirirom
General Survey. Phnom Penh: Ministry of Environment, Department of
Nature Conservation and Protection.
2.
Asian Development Bank (2005)
Greater Mekong subregion biodiversity conservation initiative: Strategic
framework and technical Assessment 2005-2014. Bangkok: Asian Development Bank.
221 p.
3.
Palmer B, Martin S
(2008) The Rough Guide to Cambodia. London: Rough Guides Limited. 352 p.
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Wildlife Conservation
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5.
O’Brien TG, Kinnaird
MF, Wibisono HT (2003) Crouching tigers, hidden prey: Sumatran populations in a
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6.
van Schaik CP, Monk KA,
Robertson JMY (2001) Dramatic decline in Orang-utan numbers in the Leuser
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Gillison AN (2001)
Vegetation survey and habitat assessment of the Tesso Nilo forest complex.
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Eyes on the Forest
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Asian Development Bank
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10.
Timmins RJ, Duckworth
JW (2004) Status and conservation of Douc Langurs (Pygathrix nemaeus) in Laos. Int J Primatol 20: 469-489.
11.
Unet R (2009) Concern
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12.
J Payne Pers. Comm.
13.
ST Wong, Pers. Comm.
14.
New Straits Times (05
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Clements R, Rayan MD, Ahmad Zafir AW, Venkataraman A,
Alfred R et al. (2010) Trio under threat: can we secure the future of rhinos,
elephants and tigers in Malaysia. Biodivers Conserv 19: 1115-1136.
16.
MD Rayan, unpublished
data.
17.
Sharma DDD (2009) Taman
Negara Threatened by New Road. Malaysiankini. Available:
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18.
Rabinowitz A (2004) A
question of balance. Natl Geogr 205: 98-117.
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Gray DD (2006) Ho Chi
Minh Trail Vietnam, from Soldier’s Road to Tourist Highway. Associated Press.
Available:
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Accessed 03 Aug 2014.
20.
Stone R (2006) The
Saola’s last stand. Science 314: 1380-1383.
21.
World Bank (2005) Going, going, gone: The illegal trade in
wildlife in East and Southeast Asia. Washington DC: Environment and
Social Development Department, East Asia and Pacific Region. 32 p.
22.
Shepherd CR, Compton J,
Warne S (2007) Transport Infrastructure and Wildlife Trade Conduits in the GMS:
Regulating Illegal and Unsustainable Wildlife Trade. Available:
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23.
Nguyen MH (2009) The
status of vulnerable gaur (Bos gaurus)
and endangered banteng (Bos javanicus)
in Ea So Nature Reserve and Yok Don and Cat Tien National Parks, Vietnam. Oryx
43: 129-135.
24.
Polet G, Ling S (2004)
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conservation management in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam Oryx 38: 186-196.